Peramangk

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The Peramangk Aboriginal People

The Peramangk aboriginal people existed for at least 2,400 years

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Long before the dawn of modern white history, the Peramangk Aboriginal people inhabited the tree-filled gullies and park-like tablelands of the eastern Adelaide Hills. These folk enjoyed an unending supply of edible plants and grubs to gather, together with marsupials such as kangaroos and opossums to hunt. Seasonal trading occurred with the River Murray Aborigines, an association which occasionally led to war. By the time the first white colonists made their way into the Adelaide Hills in 1837, the Peramangk had all but disappeared, leaving great silent forests for Europeans to explore and eventually clear. Remnants of Aboriginal rock paintings and creek-side camps, together with strategic look-out caves peering out over the Murray Flats, remind later generations of this significant era.

The Peramangk habitat in South Australia ranged from the cool Eucalyptus forests of the Mount Lofty Summit region, often called 'The Tiers', to the warmer eastern ranges near the Murray Plains. Their territory extended from the south near Myponga, north towards Gawler. and then east along the South Para River to the township of Truro. Their eastern boundary extended from near Towitta and southwards towards Strathalbyn, following the Bremer escarpment. The northern Peramangk lived close to Mount Crawford and were known as the 'Tarrawata'. The Mount Barker Springs group were known as the 'Ngurlinjeri'. A splinter group of the Peramangk nation were known as the 'Merrimayanna', and lived in a semi-permanent campsite in the eastern Barossa Region.

The 'Merrimayanna' were known as skilled artists who painted vivid motifs in red, yellow and white ochre. They utilized the many rock shelters in the eastern ranges to depict probable dream time stories, ceremonies and hunting scenes.
Of the 69 art sites recorded so far, some can be visited with Aboriginal custodians. Only some of the 'Merrimayanna' art works have been interpreted with many other sites yet to be discovered.

With the advancement of agricultural development, which displaced many Aboriginals and the spread of infectious diseases introduced by the Europeans the population of Aboriginal people declined dramatically. Very little documentation of the Peramangk people exists beyond the 1850s and it is thought those who remained integrated with the 'Ngarindjeri' of the lower Murray and the 'Kaurna' of the Adelaide plains.

Hahndorf

The site chosen by the Lutherans for the village of Hahndorf was a favourite summer camping place for the Peramangk Aboriginal people. The indigenous people called it 'Bukartilla' (in reference to the swimming hole). It was watered by several creeks emptying into the nearby Onkaparinga River. Groups of large gum trees existed with their centres deliberately fired to make a hollow area to provide temporary shelter whenever they were in residence.

Contrary to expectation, there are few records of conflict between the Peramangk and the Lutherans. They are recorded as showing the settlers how to catch possums and where to find edible roots and leaves but their kindness did not prevent loss of their hunting grounds.

In 1844, there is recorded a battle between the Permanangk people of the hills and the Moop-pol-tha-wong from the Murray and Encounter Bay regions. This occurred in the vicinity of Nixon's Mill at Hahndorf and involved some 2000 warriors. Intervention by the Mill owner and two other men by attempting to reason with the aboriginal leaders failed, and the episode was only ended when mounted troupers with drawn swords arrived.

Excerpts from Publications related to Hahndorf

Excerpt from 'Torrens Valley Historical Journal' Number 32

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"The Peramangk occupied an area which was well endowed with resources, food, water, firewood, and raw materials such as stone; timber and resins for tool manufacture; bark for huts, shields and canoes; pigments for painting; furred animals for warm rugs, etc. During winter, they constructed warm, dry huts of branches, bark grass and leaves, often built around the hollow side of old red gums.

They were encountered by European explorers, squatters and overlanders who passed through this area or settled there. Sometimes they visited the settlement of Adelaide in a large group to conduct ceremonial business and social gatherings, and no doubt to observe the strange appearance, habits and artifacts of the European interlopers. This contact was mostly peaceful, although the European police troopers did harass them on occasion. Not until the mid 1840's, when flocks of sheep were crowding the watering places and grazing lands of the "Hills tribe" and the animals which they hunted for food, did open conflicts arise. Even then, the source of confrontation was the right of local Aborigines to take for their own use some of the animals and material goods which the Europeans had placed on their traditional lands. There was apparently little physical violence, and in some cases food and other items were given by farmers in exchange for assistance with harvesting crops (eg wheat and potatoes), at a time when farm labour was in desperately short supply.

However, by the late 1850's the scattered documentary sources cease to mention the Hills tribe; there is only the chronicle of a growing agricultural district. Only fragmentary descriptions have been recorded of the traditional way of life of the Peramangk. This is a sad commentary on the devastating effect of European incursions upon Aboriginal Australia.

Most of the historical information relating to the Peramangk consists of passing references in European diaries, official's records, or personal memoirs. They are barely mentioned in the early ethnographic literature concerning Aborigines, written in the late nineteenth century."

Historical Notes

The Peramangk were an 'Indigenous Australian' people whose traditional lands were primarily located in Adelaide Hills but also in the southern stretches of the Fleurieu Peninsula, South Australia. They were also referred to as the Mount Barker, South Australia tribe, as their numbers were noted to be greater around the Mount Barker summit (ref: [WWW]http://www.desertdreams.com.au ), but Peramangk country extended from the Barossa Valley in the north, south to Myponga, South Australia, east to Strathalbyn, and west to the Gulf St Vincent.

Peramangk family group names included Poonawatta, Tarrawatta, Karrawatta, Yira-Ruka, Wiljani, Mutingengal, Runganng, Jolori, Pongarang, Paldarinalwar, Merelda. They did not become extinct, and many families can trace connections back to several survivors. Art works were being maintained well into the 20th century. Norman Tindale in his various interviews with Peramangk descendents recorded the names of at least 8 family groups; the Poonawatta to the west of Mt Crawford, the Tarrawatta and Yira-Ruka (Wiljani)whose worta (lands) extended to the east down as far as Mt Torrens and Mannum. The Karrawatta (west) and Mutingengal(Mareldi) (east), occupied lands to the north of Mt Barker, but somewhat south of the River Torrens. The Rungang (Jolori), Pongarang (Paldarinalwar), and the Merelda, occupied the lands to the south of Mt Barker, in preceding order down as far as Myponga in the south.
(ref: [WWW]http://www.samuseum.sa.gov.au/ | Tindale Tribes | Peramangk | )

Conflicting reports show enmity between the three tribes of the Adelaide region, Kaurna, Ngarrindjeri and Peramangk, yet other reports tell that the Peramangk were held with some reverence due to their differing cultural practices.
(ref: [WWW]http://www.samuseum.sa.gov.au/ |Tindale Tribes | Peramangk | )

Population and traditional practises are hard to verify as shortly after the European settlement of the Adelaide Hills, especially in Mount Barker, and Hahndorf, the Peramangk had been thought to have been wiped out by introduced diseases, but records show that they were in fact settled at Poonindee, Moorundie, Wellington, and later at Point Pearce and Point McLeay.
(ref: Poonindie, Brock P & Kartinyeri D (1989), Aboriginal Heritage Branch, S.A. Government Printer, Adelaide; and Hahndorf - Settlement and the Early Village)

Peramangk family group names included Poonawatta, Tarrawatta, Karrawatta, Yira-Ruka, Wiljani, Mutingengal, Runganng, Jolori, Pongarang, Paldarinalwar, Merelda. They did not become extinct, and many families can trace connections back to several survivors. Art works were being maintained well into the 20th century.
(ref: Hancock,D. 1997, An Archaeological report on a Peramangk Aboriginal location near Springton South Australia, Flinders University.)

1842 - South Australia, in 1842 By One Who Lived There Nearly Four Years. Published by J.C. Hailes 1843
‘From the time of the founding of the colony of South Australia, great interest has been felt in behalf of the native inhabitants of the country……The boundaries of their particular districts are well known by the different tribes and generally respected by them; something of of the nature of hereditry succession obtains among them, so that they have in their language a term “pangkarra” which signifies a district or tract of country belonging to an individual which he inherits from his father’. Each “pangkarra” has its peculiar name; and as in the civilised world the owners take their names from their lands, so the natives do in South Australia with the addition of the term “burka”. One popular character in Adelaide is known by the regal title of “King John”….. his native name was “Mullawirraburka”, signifying “The Dry-forest Man”.

1926 - Hossfeld, Paul S. The Aborigines of South Australia: Native occupation of Eden Valley and Angaston, Royal Society of SA.
“This paper would be incomplete without reference to the very numerous burnt out hollow red gums occurring in the district. The majority of the openings face east or north, and provide excellent shelter……..In conclusion the writer voices his regret that these important records of the former native occupation should be doomed to rapid disappearance owing to the mutilation which they are subject to by visitors ignorant of their value.”

Peramangk Language

The Peramangk appears to have belonged to the Yura-Thura group of languages as described by Luis Hercuse, in A Nukunu Dictionary 1992, AIATSIS. Tindale when interviewing Robert 'Tarby' Mason, learnt that the language of the Peramangk was related not only to that of the groups east of the river, but to the groups as far north as Lake Victoria. This put them in close contact with the Nganguruku, Ngaiwang, Ngadjuri and Maraura peoples. Hemming, S. & Cook, C. Crossing the River,Murray-darling basin Commision (1992). There are several Peramangk words recorded in a variety of sources; - ku:itpo - sacred or forbidden place; - maitpana:likkya - food for them ( a ration station near Mt Barker); - poona: good / healthy / fertile (poonawatta - Lyndoch Valley); - watta (worta): a persons land or country; - tarra: land that rises up, a steep hill or ridge; - karra: redgum (same as in the Kaurna); - kungatukko: womens look out ( in Peramangk a hard TT sound is sometimes; replaced with a hard KK sound instead); - wadnar: digging or climbing stick; - kakirra: moon; - nurrondi: enchant/charm; - meyuworta (meruwatta): countryman/ a person belonging to the same family group; - marnitti: grease to mix with ochre to cover the body; - mambarti: hair matted with grease and red ochre; - kuyeta: first born son; - kartiatto: first born daughter; - yarida: bad magic; - lantara: ghost or spirit; - tinda: a persons totem ;
( ref: - Teichelmann, CG & Schurmann, C.W. Outlines of a grammar.....of the language of South Australia....around Adelaide, (1840), by authors. - Hemming & Cook,Crossing the River (1992) )

Aboriginal Rock Art in the Adelaide Hills (Robin Coles)

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Robin Coles with young aboriginal students at Mt Lofty rock art site

A soon to be published book ‘Peramangk culture and rock art in the Mt Lofty Ranges of SA’, written by Robin Coles covers the known history of the Peramangk and their culture, myths and legends, use of fungi and plants, and their rock art in the Mount Lofty ranges, and includes over 160 colour pictures.

Also included are images of some of the 69 discovered rock art paintings and engravings in the Mt Lofty Ranges, the stories behind the art, and historical information on how the Peramangk people lived.

Robin Coles, Senior Consultant at Rural Solutions SA, spent more than 20 years of discovering and photographing Aboriginal rock art in the Mount Lofty Ranges. What started out as a regular Sunday drive through the Mt Lofty Ranges became much more for Robin, whose interest in the relatively unknown Peramangk culture prompted him to document the remaining heritage for future generations.

Robin, who also conducts Workers Education Association tours to some of the rock art sites, says there is very little knowledge of what the paintings mean as much of the generational story telling stopped after the 1860s when the Aboriginal people were encouraged to adopt Christianity.

Robin has stated that -

The book was based on research that was funded through grants administered by the Aboriginal Heritage Branch with assistance from the Peramangk Elder, the late Richard Hunter, and Isobelle Campbell (Peramangk custodian and President Mannum Aboriginal Development Committee).

People Of The Adelaide Hills - by Reg Butler

(The following was extracted from information by Reg Butler provided to local Schools)

Look! High above the swirling white winter mists rise huge mountains covered with dark stringybark trees. In summer, night bushfires sometimes crackle and glow red among the branches. The is the former homeland of the Peramangk people.

Here is their story.

Many years ago, the first Aboriginal people came to live on the Adelaide Plains. Sadly, evil spirits which lived there did not like to be disturbed. They changed many of the new-comers into animals and birds. Eventually, the Aborigines forced the evil spirits to remain in creeks and waterholes forever. However, Aboriginal people could no longer eat animals or birds, because, very likely, they could be human beings. One man and his wife ate part of a kangaroo. Some time later, their little baby boy, Pootpobberrie, was born. He was part person and part kangaroo. Pootpobberie grew taller than anyone else. He had long pointed paws and fur grew all over him. Pootpobberrie could carry a rock in one hand and jump across a gully with one leap as well. In time, Pootpobberrie and his wife went to live in the Adelaide Hills. They became the father and mother of the Peramangk people.

European immigrants drawing near by sea to South Australia in the late 1830s occasionally became aware of the Peramangk people, long before knowing anything about them. During February 1837, Pastor William Finlayson and his fellow passengers gazed over the side of the good ship John Renwick about to ride at anchor at Glenelg after nightfall:

The watchers on deck beheld a fire on one of the hills, which seemed to spread from hill to hill with amazing speed. All on board were now awake and on deck looking at this grand conflagration, as it seemed as if the whole land was a mass of flame. In the morning, a great change had taken place; the whole range was a black as midnight, except where the trees were burning ...

Next morning, the curious minister found out from people ashore that towards the end of summer, the Peramangk people used to set alight to the dry grass to drive out and catch all manner of animals and vermin trying to escape the flames.

Nearly two years later, on his journey into the Adelaide Hills to find a permanent home for his Lutheran refugees, Captain Hahn witnessed how the Aborigines did the burning:

But this involves a whole tribe. They form a circle about twenty English miles in diameter, light fires around this area, and then direct the fire closer and closer in toward the centre of the circle. The long dry grass, bushes and young trees burn fiercely; all the animals living in this area flee toward the centre, where the savages then catch them. A hunt like this occurred during our stay, and the fire burned for some days; I had never before seen such a fire.

For his part, Pastor Finlayson never forgot his first vivid glimpse of Peramangk Aboriginal activity. As he established a farm at what is now known as Mitcham, he promised himself to make a trip into a region where practically no Europeans had ventured. Finlayson joined three other adventurers to push right across Peramangk territory during Christmas 1837. On 26 December, the party stood on the Mount Barker sunnit and then, by following the course of the Bremer River, struggled down the slopes to Lake Alexandrina, Tired and footsore, Finlayson and his companions returned home on New Year’s Eve 1838:

Some in Adelaide thought we would never return, but be murdered by the natives, but, strange to say ... we never saw one ... Smoke in the distance we frequently saw, and came upon their recently occupied camping-places, but themseles we saw not, but I have no doubt they saw and avoided us.

Yes, the Peramangk people would have certainly been on guard! Today, rock lookout shelters still stand sentinal over the Adelaide Plains and the Murray Flats. The feared Peramangk were always watchful for Kaurna and Murray River Aborigines about to enter the ranges, via one of the numerous river valleys. These lookouts also served as bases to send smoke signals to other tribal groups and to spot game which hunters could later seek out to vary the diet of hills dwellers.

Ongoing flood damage and careful search have revealed more and more sites where visiting groups from the plains camped on journeys in and out of the mountains. Well along the South Rhine gorge east from Eden Valley, for example, a campsite for some four hundred travellers has been discovered. During such epic trips, the visitors hoped to bargain for canoe bark, possum skins and quartz.

In return, the Murray tribe brought up flint from cliffs along the river, red ochre gathered from in the vicinity of the Reedy Creek mine near present-day Palmer and deft, light spears made from mallee wood.

For millenia, Peramangk Aborigines had called the Adelaide Hills home. These people learnt to survive in a climate often freezing in winter and rather warm in summer. Short, though violent, spring and summer thunderstorms followed sustained winter deluges of rain. Particularly on the eastern ranges, lightning strikes burnt out huge tree trunks and swept through vegetation, augmented periodically by human firesticks when nature failed to oblige. The Aborigines used the hollow gums for shelter and hunted down wild creatures fleeing into the open to escape advancing flames. All living things alike recognised the dangers of remaining anywhere near watercourses about to burst into wild, uncontrolled flooding, which subsided as fast as it had occurred.

Although not now known exactly, the Peramangk lived in a region with definite borders against the Kaurna tribe of the Adelaide Plains to the west and the Murray River tribes to the east. Tindale believed that the name Peramangk could well have been of Kaurna origin, though, meaning flesh of red colour, harking back to the tribal custom of covering males with ochre at times of initiation and war. Just outside of the Mount Pleasant district, the Angas family's Tarrawatta Station near Angaston preserves the name of one of the local groups of Peramangk. A corruption of the Aboriginal word tainkila, meaning ghost moth grub, remains in Tungkillo, well-known as a regional name to every resident of the Mount Pleasant area itself.

Unfortunately, conflicting evidence makes reliable commentary upon Mount Pleasant's original Aboriginal inhabitants as difficult as tracing the area's geological formation. We owe a debt to diary observations of pioneer teacher and writer WA Cawthorne, in the 1840s; to detailed studies by the scholar NB Tindale between the 1920s-1970s; to interviews and investigations conducted in the 1920s by Paul Hossfeld, a Lutheran Pastor's son born and bred within coo-ee of the Murray Flats. Further scattered information emerges from the diaries and letters of the earliest colonists, who had fleeting contact with the Peramangk, before the tribe finally left its traditional grounds.

The caterpillar of the moth grub was a right royal delicacy for the Peramangk. Food gatherers became experts at flushing out these 8cm-10cm long balls of cream flesh from decaying gum trees. Tungkillo's prolific wattles proved another rich source of moth larvae. Further springtime treats included white ant and other insect larvae, birds' eggs, young birds and lizards. During summer, the tribe sought out native roots and vegetable products. Never did the Aborigines farm in the accepted European method.

At other times of the year, animal hunting took precedence. Digging implements or smoke forced bandicoots and other burrowing creatures out of their holes. Food-baited grass snares caught Murray Flats rats. Small sticks burnt holes in the bark of bare lower tree trunks to allow hunters to climb up to raid the upper branches for possums, valuable for both skin and meat. Using only a slender spear and short club, Peramangk men pitted their wits against kangaroos, wallabies, possums and emus - either driving them into huge nets made from woven bulrushes, or spearing and clubbing unsuspecting creatures intent upon an evening drink at one of the area's numberless waterholes. The water also yielded yabbies, perch, mud fish and water rats.

Even though the climate could be harsh, the Peramangk had a wealth of natural resources to help make life comfortable and to trade with their neighbours upon the plains. Hossfeld found out from Mrs William Grigg, of Springton, that Aborigines tended to gather in numbers of about six hundred in semi-permanent camps at the headwaters of the various district rivers. During her childhood on Pewsey Vale Station in the 1840s, the former Miss Isabella Semple had watched the Peramangk abandon their warm winter homes of branches and bark, grass and leaves built around hollow-sided red gums to enjoy an outdoors existence as spring advanced, in wurlies constructed of huge sheets of bark. From time to time, small groups spent days on walk-about, hunting and gathering over a wide area in the balmy summer weather, when substantial protection was not usually a necessity.

Over the years, the Peramangk worked out a watchful co-existence with their war-like neighbours along the Murray River. Lookout shelters, fashioned under convenient overhanging rocks with excellent protection against wind and rain, have survived on high portions of the Tungkillo Ranges and the Rhine Hills. From here, the Mount Pleasant Aborigines had an unimpeded view of advancing natives crossing the Murray Flats to bargain for canoe bark, possum skins and quartz. The lookouts also served as bases to send smoke signals to other tribal groups and to spot game which hunters could later seek out to vary the diet of the hills dwellers.

In return, the Murray tribe brought up flint from cliffs along the river, red ochre gathered from in the vicinity of the Reedy Creek mine and deft, light spears made from mallee wood. A journey into the ranges assumed trappings of the epic - Palmer residents long pointed out a huge red gum growing at the rear of Henry Mengersen’s garden, where Aboriginal people gathered and camped on their way in and out of the nearby gorges. Well along the South Rhine gorge, a campsite for some four hundred travellers has been discovered.

Apparently, the Murray Aborigines lived in just as much fear of their mountain-dwelling neighbours. The closed-in forests and hills, where humans appeared to flit in shadowy form, did not appeal to a folk who spent their existence in open countryside. Even when the Peramangk had vanished from the region, the visiting Murray people still laid barter goods in appropriate bushland clearings in order to appease any malevolent influences. It also seems evident that both groups disliked the silent stringybark forests and kept well away from gum trees in summer, when boughs dropped without explanation and could cause great damage to humans and property caught unawares beneath.

Residents and others with sympathy for the Mount Pleasant district's Aboriginal past have long had unrivalled opportunity to hone their interest. People of late middle-age and older (1993) who spent their youth in the South Rhine and Tungkillo countryside have vivid memories of discovering Aboriginal campsites at intervals along some of the creeks and rivers. With the aid of the inevitable campfire, Peramangk women cooked food, while men used the heat to fashion certain weapons. At night, the low embers provided light and warmth. Some amateur anthropologists have found Aboriginal burial grounds uncovered by rabbits and/or flood water in the soft ground beside streams and waterholes. Following a death, the tribal women engaged in a tremendous communal howling around the corpse, after which they they wrapped the body and buried it in a carefully-made hole where digging was easy. Effective modern flood and rabbit controls will make the discovery of further new Aboriginal campsites and burial grounds rather more difficult.

Property owners, hikers and picnickers have come across caves with Aboriginal paintings in the steep Tungkillo and Rhine gorges, often in fairly inaccessible countryside. For fear of vandalism, some of these sites have not been advertised and the entrances protected from easy access. Peramangk artists moulded chewed eucalyptus leaves into brushes and painted designs in red ochre, or occasionally white clay, on the cave roof and walls. Most of the pictures show human beings in conventional positions; while others are footprints, or depict lizards, snakes and turtles, all creatures abounding in the neighbourhood. The caves had particular significance for initiation ceremonies of youths approaching adulthood and for the rites of the tribal sorcerer, who professed to be able to cure sickness, control the elements, cast spells and change themselves into other objects. Needless to say, the tribe venerated both the sorcerer and the caves and stayed well away, unless absolutely necessary.

Even before white settlers first moved to the Mount Pleasant area in the early 1840s, it appears that the Peramangk had voluntarily vacated much of their original territory. Various European influences quickly broke down the remainder of the carefully-balanced discipline which had nurtured Aboriginal life in the region. Farms and sheep stations obliterated traditional paths and made it difficult for the Peramangk to gather in particular spots to carry out rituals. Foreign disease wrought havoc amongst people with no natural resistance to imported sickness. In 1842, an English colonist wrote home to describe a native encampment he had seen in Flaxman Valley:

The blacks wander about in the day-time, and at night sleep in a shed, which they call a whurley (sic), made of the branches of trees ... I can hear them singing one of their carrobarees (sic) ... about 100 yards distant from the door. I went the other night to see them and found them all sitting stark naked around the fire ... They had been feasting on the fat of a bullock, which we had given them ... We found a large lizard beside them, which they had put by for their next meal. They are not, generally, very communicative, as they suspect the white men; but this family appear to be an exception to such reservedness; and I learnt several native words from them.

Aboriginal people hovered in an uneasy half-real world. They learnt some words of broken English and increasingly relied on the whites for food and other handouts. A few Aborigines became stockmen on the recently-established pastoral runs, while the womenfolk found employment in domestic work. Most remained wanderers (their beloved puppies peering out inquisitively from swinging billies), well-remembered for an annual visit to the Mount Pleasant region, while on their way back and forth between the Adelaide Plains and the Murray River until probably the 1870s. No recorded incident of violent opposition to European settlement in the district has so far come to light. The Peramangk apparently melted before the coming of the white folk, whom they often regarded as ghostly re-incarnations of their own ancestors.

Mrs Lucy Coleman, who arrived in the Mount Barker District in the late 1830s, remembered a blind member of the Mount Barker tribe climbing high trees:
He was most clever at climbing trees to get opossums and young parrots. With one stroke of his pointed stick he would cut a deep step in the bark of a tree, and into it would put the great toe of his right foot. Then another step was cut higher up into which the toe of his left foot was put, and a pointed stick in his left hand, driven into the bark, held him up whilst this was done. In that way, he would quickly mount up to the branches of a tall gum tree. I have myself seen that man go up a smooth-barked gum tree which was at least 30’ high to the nearest branch.
His wife or daughter would stand under the tree, and tell him which way to turn to a branch that was hollow at the end. He would then carefully creep along it until he was near enough to put in his arm and pull out the opossums or young parrots that were inside, and throw them down to those below.
Sadly, the poor man fell to his death during one of these climbing feats. Mrs Coleman’s brother helped the widow dig a grave for the brave hunter.

Additional Information

Additional information re the Peramangk is available from:

Bibliography

Compiled by Reg Butler (1993).

As yet, no major work has been been produced concerning the Peramangk Aborigines of the Adelaide Hills.
Below is a select list of references, where scattered information appears.

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